The History About The Psychological Egoism Philosophy Essay

The History About The Psychological Egoism Philosophy Essay Psychological egoism, once widely accepted by political economists, philosophers, and psychologists, is a controversial notion. Many agree and disagree with this perspective and the explanations for what motivates humans. Proponents erroneously argue that people are always motivated by their perceived self-interest, including altruistic acts. Through altruistic behaviors, malevolence, self-deception, and theoretical problems, this theory can be disproven. Psychological egoism states that all human actions are motivated by selfish desire. Proponents of this doctrine believe that altruism exists, but only because the consequence of such of act leads to an increase in personal happiness. Therefore, purely altruistic and benevolent acts do not exist; people seem to act in these ways, but their motives are for advancement of self-interest. These psychological egoists consider their theory to be law self-interest is an unavoidable psychological law. An alternate form of psychological egoism, psychological hedonism, relates to Jerry Benthams ideals, the only kind of desire is the desire to get or to prolong pleasant experiences, and to avoid or cut short unpleasant experiences for oneself (Feinberg 167). According to Joel Feinberg there are some points that have made psychological egoism plausible to many people. A staple of this theory is that every action of someone is promoted by his motives which serve to improve his self-interest. This staple is applicable to all actions of humans; therefore, all actions are selfish (Feinberg 167). Proponents also agree that people feel pleasure when they do something they want. Hence, we always strive to experience pleasure and pursue other things only because of the pleasurable consequences it will yield. Self-deception is a fundamental cog in the system of psychological egoism. People often trick themselves into performing a noble act rather than acting in their self-interest. Even a simple smile conceals a motive for personal pleasure a ploy to earn a positive reaction from another human. The tale of Abraham Lincoln and the sow shows fallacy in the psychological egoism statement, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ what we really want in every case is our own pleasure, and that we pursue other things only as a means (Feinberg 170). Psychological egoists claim that Lincoln acted on the sow purely for the selfish pleasure. However, that statement is wrong; pleasure, the by-product of the altruistic act, does not have to indicate that Lincoln acted in self-interest. In reality, pleasure can be used to argue that the act was not in self-interest. In situations in which people gain pleasure from a certain act there must have been a desire for something else. Lincolns desire for the pigs, when fulfilled, understandably provided pleasure. The purpose of Lincolns desire was not pleasure, but instead pleasure was the consequence of Lincoln completing his desired act. This example of Lincoln and the sow shows that, though pleasure resulted from an altruistic act, pleasure is a consequence of desir e for something else. Similar to the disinterested benevolence of Lincoln, disinterested malevolence is unexplainable by psychological egoism. Often those who commit malevolent deeds are acting in opposition of their self-interest in order to do harm to others (Feinberg 170.) A selfish person is concerned with his own self-interests. There have been incidents in which malevolent people injure themselves in order to cause harm to others; this fact is something that psychological egoists struggle to hold in their case. There are no logical mistakes made by a psychological egoist concerning self-deception but it lacks empirically. A soldier who throws himself onto a grenade to save others is self-deceived; he believes he has some duty or virtue to save others. Psychological egoists wrongly generalize self-deception because of its predicted frequency (Feinberg 170). It is impossible to exactly know someones conscious motives to carry out an action. It is even possible for the person himself to be unaware of his motives for an action. However, it is always possible for a psychological egoist to predict that someone is acting in their own self-interest. They are able to do so because it is impossible to exactly know someones motive for something. Although they can make this claim, they cannot support it with empirical data. They lack a serious conclusion to their predictions of self-interest. They are correct in saying someone may be acting in self-interest, but that cannot be empirically supported. Another problem with this theory is its issue with correlative terms. Naturally the complete understanding of a word comes with the comprehension of the correlate. Examples include good-bad, tall-short, and large-small. Common terms in psychological egoism are selfish-unselfish and self-interest-altruism. However there is a flaw with correlative terms in this theory; psychological egoists believe that altruistic behaviors are actually acts of self-interest. This statement is imprecise because it is impossible for a correlate to mean the same as the original term. Big cannot mean small and therefore stating that altruism is the correlate of self-interest is invalid. It is widely accepted that a theory which cannot be proven falsifiable is not credible. Psychological egoism states that all people act in self-interest. This statement keeps people from questioning which actions are in self-interest. If all actions are selfish then selfish actions and actions are synonymous. Because this theory claims to be universal and unfalsifiable it is meaningless. This theory attempts to redefine terms such as altruism and selfishness. These new definitions conflict with our ordinary understandings of the terms. We know altruism to be acts that contribute to welfare of others. We also know selfish acts to be those that focus on the self rather than opposites. Based on these two definitions it seems that the two are antonyms. Conversely, psychological egoists regard these two as near synonyms. Altruistic acts are selfish according to these egoists. How can altruistic acts, which are inherently beneficial to the welfare of others, be acts that have underlying motives for self-interest? That is a question that is difficult for psychological egoists to answer. I believe that because this argument is unfalsifiable, it is irrelevant. A psychological egoist may tell me that my acts can be boiled down to simple motives for self-interest. The most basic principle of this theory is that all human actions, altruistic or not, can be simplified into an act of self-interest. This statement of psychological egoism dooms it; there can be no empirical definition of the theory. Someones motives exist in their mind whether they know it or not, according to this theory. If I attempt to tell them I act for others and not for my self-interest they will tell me that I deceive myself into thinking my acts are noble or virtuous in order to satisfy my needs. If I attempt to tell them I act for others not for my self-interest they will tell me that I deceive myself into thinking my acts are noble or virtuous in order to satisfy my needs. It can never be measured and the self-deception facet of this theory attempts to compensate for the lack of empirical informat ion. Because peoples motives exist in their minds, self-deception accounts for why we do not know we act selfishly. They will explain that what I pursue is pleasure even though I tell myself otherwise. Hence, we can never know when we act selfishly because our motives are naturally hidden. This lack of empirical data is skeptical and not sufficient enough to explain why people act in their own self-interest. It is impossible to make such a bold prediction as psychological egoism does; this theory labels altruistic acts selfish, lacks explanation for malevolent acts, lacks empirical data, defies correlate terms, is unfalsifiable, and invents new definitions for ordinary words. The biggest flaw of psychological determinism is its inability to be proven falsifiable. This theory is not empirically definable. It is a closed argument because every action on earth can be broken down into an act in self-interest and therefore is irrelevant.

Do Video Games Cause Violence Essay

Do violent video games cause violent behavior? I believe that violent video games do not cause violent behavior. While I agree that violent video games may desensitize youth to violence, I don’t believe the games make the youth more violent than they already are. Its not fair to single handedly blame violent video games, when there are tons of other violent media sources out there. Karen Sternheimer is a sociologist from the University of Southern California and has been researching the topic since 1999 and she says â€Å"Placing the blame on video games exonerates the environment that a child lives in that might nurture violence: poverty, instability, family violence, unemployment, and mental illness, Sternheimer argues.† I agree with her that blaming the games is a cop out and an excuse for the parents and other violent media to not have to take responsibility. In Sternheimer article titled â€Å"Do Video Games Kill?† She says â€Å"If we want to understand wh y young people become homicidal, we need to look beyond the games they play,† I agree with Sternheimer here because I think that its safe to say a youth doesn’t just suddenly get the urge to go out and start killing people. If people were willing to look beyond face value and beyond how something appears to be. They would see that these kids who become violent might be being bullied, or depressed or have other life things going on that pushed them to the â€Å"breaking point† and they just might happen to play a violent video game. The research that show violent video games causing aggressive behavior are not accurate to how these games are played in real life. Andrew Przybylski and colleagues who wrote an article in the Review of General Psychology say that â€Å"most video game experiments only have players play for short periods of time, often for as little as 10 minutes, and violent games tend to be more difficult to learn and have more complex controls than non-violent games, it appears that many participants in these experiments may simply have been frustrated by being cut off so quickly before they even learned how to play, rather than by the violent content of the game.† (Review of General Psychology). To me this makes the research the people are using to discredit the violent video game unreliable. They are just taking the data and interpreting it to show their side as being right. I know that if I only had a short amount of time to learn a new video game it would make me pretty frustrated too. So the aggression that they are seeing is not necessarily aggression from the game as it is aggression from failing. Graduate student Jose Valadez found that both violent and nonviolent games tend to relax people over time, not anger them. People now days actually do use games to release stress and relax. Sometimes people who are feeling aggressive use the games to vent that aggression rather than have the game add to their aggression. Almost everyone will have a homicidal thought at one point or another in time. But for those thought to turn to action is a completely different problem that does not have any association with video games. When a youth acts out in violent manner instead of looking at what video games they are playing they need to be looking at the mental health and stability of the youth. Consistent and ever present homicidal thoughts are linked with severe mental health problems such as psychosis, depression, anxiety or paranoia. (Scientific American) Those mental illnesses are causing violent behavior not video games. Blaming the video games also allows for a cop out for parents. In the United States the ESRB or Entertainment Software Rating Board puts ratings on all games. Those rating range fro EC or early childhood to AO or Adult only. All of the games accused of causing violent behavior in youth such as Call Of Duty, Halo or Grand Theft Auto are all rated M for mature meaning the parents or someone of authority had to purchase these games for the youth. The ESRB rates these games with certain age requirements for a reason. Allowing anyone to blame the video game takes all accountability off of the parents because they don’t have to own the choice to ignore the advice of the rating company and allow their children to play these games. Being able to blame the video games also ignores the violence the youth is exposed to at home also allowing the parents to blame something else besides themselves. While the media says two boys went on a killing spree in the mall and they happened to play halo is a harsh generalization that shouldn’t be said or used, because while these kids may have played halo doesn’t mean that halo is the reason these kids went on a killing spree. These kids could have been being physically or emotionally abused at home. Abuse makes people feel helpless powerless and worthless. These kids could have finally just had enough and acted out in a violent manner just to finally feel like they had power in their lives. Abuse could be the answer but no one would know becaus e the parents will never admit to being abusive. If all other arguments fail the one that has to be considered is that videogames are not the only violent media out in the world. While violent video games are first person and put the player in the shoes of the shooter or killer it is no less desensitizing then it is to watch someone else on a screen kill somebody. Violent movies show some of the most realistic and grotesque violence around. When it comes to desensitizing someone to violence or glorifying violence movies are just as guilty if not more guilty than games. Movie like Act of Valor or Rambo glorify violence because they show the â€Å"hero† killing the â€Å"bad guys† in reality not on a animated picture. Violent music is also guilty but has been brought to more light in examples such as the Cassie Jo Stoddart case where the two boys who killed Cassie said they were inspired by the lyrics from a song by the band Insane Clown Posse who are known for their intensely violent lyrics. If people are wanting to blame video games a form of media they also need to look at all other forms of media involved in that youths life such as what music they have on their iPods or mP3 players to what movies they have at home and that they have watched recently. In conclusion while violent video games may contribute to the desensitization of violence they are not alone in the desensitization of violence. Also until there is a set scale and proven test to determine the aggression associated with video games they can not be blamed for the acts of anyone one else. Parents need to also be held more accountable for the actions and roles they play in these tragic events they need to stop hiding behind video games and take responsibility for what has happened.We as society also need to step up and look harder for the solution to why these teens go homicidal rather than blaming the first thing that we find.

How is John’s relationship with Elizabeth different from that with Abigail? Essay

The relationship betwen John and Abigail had more physical chemistry and lust compared to that between John and Elizabeth, who kept a more estranged and distant relationship. This is seen from Abigail’s flirtatious relationship with John, with Abigail caught admiring John physique, â€Å"absorbing his presence, wide-eyed†, in comparison with Elizabeth, who simply â€Å"receives† John’s kiss and remains indifferent towards his warm approaches. With that, we understand that John and Abigail shared a more romantic and passionate relationship between them, compared to the cold and slightly distant relationship between John and his wife. This is probably due to the fact that Abigail is more emotional and reciprocrates John’s feelings for her openly unlike Elizabeth, who tends to be more frigid and timid. With the contrast in characters, we see how each of them responds to John’s affections differently, with Elizabeth holding back from him due to t he affair he previously had. This attraction between John and Abigail is further seen in a short exchange between them, where John reacts to the flirtings with â€Å"a knowing smile†,while Abigail pushes on and asks for â€Å"a soft word†, while the Proctor household remains cold and lacking in warmth and passion. John and Elizabeth both show true concern for one another while the relationship between Abigail and John is very superficial and self-serving. This is evident where John defends Elizabeth from Abigail’s malicious comments, ordering her to â€Å"speak nothin’ of Elizabeth.†, showing that John truely does care for Elizabeth and would stand up to anyone who bad-mouths her. His protective action is a display of geniune love and his commitment to stay devoted to his wife, thus portraying him as a good and repentant husband. This is unlike his relationship with Abigail, who he later calls a â€Å"child†, that sports a condescending tone. He tries to forget all past ties he had with Abigail, even teling her that â€Å"we never touched†. He turns away from Abigail’s desperate pleas to come back to her and simply puts her away, after making use of her love for him. With that, we understand that John probably never geniunely cared for Abigail and only took advantage of her youth and naà ¯ve self to satisfy his selfish desires. John shows sacrificial love towards Elizabeth while Abigail and John’s relationship arise out of selfish desires. This can be seen when John risks his reputation to protect Elizabeth from the courts. He shows open defiance and â€Å"ripping (rips) the warrant† when Cheever comes to arrest his wife. By putting aside his pride and â€Å"white name†, he shows the reader his unconditional and unfailing love for Elizabeth. He even tries to bribe Herrick to let Elizabeth go, exclaiming â€Å"I’ll pay you!† desprately in a bid to rescue her. Although Elizabeth treated him coldly with suspicion for the past, he was still willing to give up his good name for the one he loved. He promises her a safe return and puts in all his strength to save his wife. In contrast, however, his relationship with Abigail does not show any of such love, with Abigail ending up having to plead with him for acceptance. She exclaims† John, pity me, pity me!†, begging de sperately in tears and practically clinging on to him with every ounce of energy she had . John however rejects her coldly and does nothing to comfort or assure her.

What´s is True Peace Essay - 1008 Words

The definition of peace means being free from disturbance. From a biblical perspective, the absence of conflict is only the beginning of peace. True peace includes personal wholeness, righteousness, political justice, and prosperity for all creation. That’s the way God intended things to be when he created his garden, his paradise. â€Å"Peace I leave with you; my peace I give to you. I do not give to you as the world gives.† (John 14:27) The word â€Å"Islam† literally means â€Å"peace† as well as â€Å"submission.† The word â€Å"Islam,† therefore, helps define peace and how it is attained. The Islamic perspective is as well about peace and knowledge and true Muslims are peace-loving people. Peace is promoted as Allah (S.W.T) says in the Quran God does not†¦show more content†¦The word Islam means surrender or submission, submission to the will of Allah, the one God. Being a Muslim requires wilful submission and active obedienc e to God and living in accordance with His message and that can be translated into following the Qur’an and the hadith. The Quran and the hadith are the two texts which are the fundamental text for all Muslims as it is believed to contain the revelation of Allah, and the teachings of the ‘sunnah’ which is the teachings of Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) complete and unaltered as revealed to the Prophet Muhammad. Peace is achieved through submission to Allah and this is reinforced through the principal teachings of Islam and the 5 pillars of Islam. Principal teachings in Christianity and Islam teach adherents to be kind, loving and peaceful towards each other. Key teachings such as loving each other is an important aspect as it was one of Jesus’ teaching as it says in the bible â€Å"A new command I give you: Love one another. As I have loved you, so you must love one another. By this everyone will know that you are my disciples, if you love one another.† This shows that Peace is a foundational element of the Christian communities. In Islam principal teachings tell Muslims the things they can do which are Halal and the things that are forbidden which is Haram. Peace is integrated as Allah) S.W.T) tells Muslims that â€Å"And the case of thoseShow MoreRelated The Political Legacy of President John F. Kennedy Essay examples1626 Words   |  7 Pagesidealism, echoes in today?s political atmosphere. In total, the latter argument is actually stronger. Although JFK does lack substantial legislation that would bolster a claim to a significant political legacy, in other ways John F. Kennedy has such an intense political legacy that to this very day the Presidency of the United States cannot escape it. In respect to truly monumental legislation, John F. Kennedy does lack and therefore the people who say he does not have a true political legacy haveRead MoreEssay Insecurity as a Root of Tyranny1290 Words   |  6 PagesInsecurity as a Root of Tyranny â€Å"Everyday Use,† by the acclaimed author Alice Walker, is a thematic and symbolic adaptation of the author’s life and the lifestyle of the African-American population during the 1960’s. Reviewing Alice Walker’s life and the 1960’s provides the necessary background to understand the character development of this story. Walker was born in 1944, the daughter of poor southern sharecroppers in Georgia. The history of the Walker family predates slavery; therefore,Read More1984 Critical Analysis1134 Words   |  5 Pagesthis society keep their emotions non-noticeable because if they go against what the inner circle is teaching than that person would work manually labor for the rest of their life. In the story a party known as the inner circle uses a few slogans and sayings to control everything. The inner circle uses all that they say to brainwash people into believing what they are saying is true. The inner party s slogans are â€Å"War is peac e, Freedom is Slavery, and Ignorance is strength† By using these phrases oneRead MoreFeminism And The Peace Movement1465 Words   |  6 PagesFeminism and the Peace Movement (1910-1990) The idea of â€Å"Feminism† is seen in the eyes of many as â€Å"women who want to be more masculine† whenever its true meaning is just women who want equality and the same respect and opportunities that men have. This belief has been built up over time through many different perspectives which is why it had turned into the negative idea of what it is. This idea of â€Å"Feminism† affected the social hierarchy and system where people were categorized based upon theirRead MoreThe Poems Of The Poem, Hymn Of Intellectual Beauty, By Percy Shelley1272 Words   |  6 Pages#1 The poems â€Å"Hymn to Intellectual Beauty† by Percy Shelley and â€Å"Ode to A Nightingale† by John Keats both discuss the topics of escaping reality and true beauty using visions of nature to express their views. Shelley, a well known atheist, finds religion in, what he calls, â€Å"spirit of beauty†. Once he makes this discovery, he is able to find a true understanding of the world around him. Keats lives his life in a state of depression, depending on the effects of alcohol to sooth his emotional painRead MoreIn This Essay, I Am Going To Challenge The Meaning Of Religion1276 Words   |  6 Pagesquestions often asked. Is violence in the world due to religion and non-religious people? People often argue that violence from others is because they are not religious. Instead of concluding that violence and religion are indeed related, what can we do to promote peace and find ways to make things right in the world we live in. People often use religion to comfort themselves during hard times or when good things happen in their lives. Religion is described as a cultural system of beliefs, behaviorsRead MoreRalph Waldo Emerson’S Unifying Theme Throughout His Essay,998 Words   |  4 PagesEmerson supports this claim with the statement â€Å"Nothing can bring you peace but yourself. Nothing can bring you peace but the triumph of a principal.† Self-reliance is the triumph of a principal. Society as a whole is anything but self-reliant, we are followers rather than creators and original thinkers. Once an individual is self-reliant on their own powers and resources, rather than those of others, can that person have true â€Å"peace†. Emerson explains why society has a problem with becoming self-reliantRead More African American Culture Essay668 Words   |  3 Pages Peace It seems quite safe to assume that all human beings desire peace. What is not always very clear is what each person means by peace and how it can be attained and maintained. Religion and peace in an African culture have been almost natural companions in the minds of humans in different periods of history and in different cultures of the world. This is because, although far too many adherents and leaders of the different religions in the world have disrupted the peace in the societyRead MoreWhy Mindfulness Meditation Gaining So Much Popularity Essay900 Words   |  4 Pageslearn how to meditate properly. With all the different forms of meditation and books on the market, it s almost impossible for the beginner to figure out where to start. In this article, we re going to look at why mindfulness meditation has become so popular in recent years. This will help you understand why it s so effective in helping practitioners find true happiness and inner peace. What Exactly is Mindfulness Meditation? Mindfulness meditation is a secular form of meditation that has itsRead MoreThe And Of A Commonwealth Essay1517 Words   |  7 Pagesfrom websites are not always correct but the information taken from web sources are written in the paper by further research on every point. Results of Research: The idea of documenting a commonwealth is to rescue the state of nature and to bring peace and prosperity and the common defense of the people; the sovereign is responsible for ensuring this defense. The sovereign may be an individual or a group of people, but Hobbes always refers the sovereign as he. The power given to the sovereign permits